Ottoman reform efforts between 1789 and 1849
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The late eighteenth century saw the Ottoman Empire fall behind the west militarily. Wars and territories were lost to Austria and Russia. Areas of the empire such as Egypt were independent in all but name only.
Thus when Selim III came to the throne in 1789 an ambitious effort of military reform was launched. All the efforts at reform were geared towards securing the Ottoman Empire. The sultan and those who surrounded him were conservative and desired to preserve the status quo. No one in power in the Empire had any interest in social transformation.
Western military advisors were imported but there abilities to enact change were limited. A parade of French officers were brought in, and none of them could do a great deal. One example of an advisor who achieved limited success was the Baron de Tott a French officer. He did succeed in having a new foundry built to make artillery. As well he directed the construction of a new naval base. Unfortunately it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home.
Interestingly when they had requested French help a few of years earlier from the Directory a young artillery officer by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte was to be sent to Constantinople. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the directory by putting down a Parisian mob in the Whiff of Grape-Shot and was kept in France.
The most important change was the creation of an elite new infantry unit the nizam-i jedid was set up with western uniforms, weapons, and training. This group offended the Janissaries, however. Once the elite forces the Janissaries had become a conservative elite using their military power to advance themselves commercially and politically.
In 1806 the Janissaries, with support of the ulema and the provincial governors revolted against the Sultan and his new force and replaced him with Mustafa IV.
In 1808 he was replaced by Mahmud II who restarted the reform efforts. His first actions was to ally with the Janissaries to break the power of the provincial governors. He then turned on the Janissaries, massacring them in their barracks in Constantinople and the provincial capitals. This cleared the way for substantial reforms.
Again these reforms were implemented mainly to improve the military. British, Prussian and French advisors were imported. Most importantly a series of schools teaching everything from math to medicine were set up to train the new officers.
Mahmud adopted other western ideas, however. The government was overhauled and redesigned on European models. European clothing styles were also imported and the Sultan and the elites abandoned the fez and turban. The first Turkish newspaper, an official government publication, was also published during this time.
This period of reform continue after the death of Mahmud in 1839. In 1849 a massive new progam of reforms known as the Tanzimat was launched.
See also: Ottoman Empire